Manual

CAARS 2 Manual

Chapter 11: CAARS 2–Short, Tables

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Table 11.1a. Demographic Characteristics of the Rated Individuals: CAARS 2–Short Calibration and Validation Samples

Demographic Self-Report Observer
Calibration Validation Calibration Validation
N % N % N % N %
Gender Male 544 46.3 487 46.1 517 47.6 504 47.4
Female 621 52.9 569 53.8 565 52.0 559 52.5
Other 10 0.9 1 0.1 4 0.4 1 0.1
U.S. Race/Ethnicity Hispanic 117 10.0 112 10.6 126 11.6 106 10.0
Asian 50 4.3 42 4.0 34 3.1 35 3.3
Black 94 8.0 93 8.8 97 8.9 102 9.6
White 693 59.0 643 60.8 650 59.9 630 59.2
Other 28 2.4 15 1.4 20 1.8 21 2.0
U.S. Region Northeast 165 14.0 176 16.7 165 15.2 172 16.2
Midwest 232 19.7 198 18.7 219 20.2 198 18.6
South 382 32.5 328 31.0 333 30.7 328 30.8
West 203 17.3 203 19.2 210 19.3 196 18.4
Canadian Region Central 124 10.6 84 7.9 105 9.7 111 10.4
East 9 0.8 15 1.4 11 1.0 14 1.3
West 60 5.1 53 5.0 43 4.0 45 4.2
Canadian Race/Ethnicity Not a visible minority 161 13.7 125 11.8 129 11.9 133 12.5
Visible minority 32 2.7 27 2.6 30 2.8 37 3.5
Education Level No high school diploma 87 7.4 67 6.3 88 8.1 85 8.0
High school diploma/GED 291 24.8 268 25.4 301 27.7 322 30.3
Some college or associate degree 389 33.1 369 34.9 340 31.3 325 30.5
Bachelor’s degree 251 21.4 222 21.0 214 19.7 204 19.2
Graduate or professional degree 157 13.4 131 12.4 143 13.2 128 12.0
Diagnosis ADHD Inattentive 64 5.4 50 4.7 35 3.2 30 2.8
ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.1 8 0.8
ADHD Combined 76 6.5 55 5.2 60 5.5 36 3.4
Anxiety 105 8.9 86 8.1 71 6.5 67 6.3
Depression 90 7.7 75 7.1 58 5.3 61 5.7
Other Diagnosis 69 5.9 45 4.3 49 4.5 44 4.1
No Diagnosis 930 79.1 863 81.6 923 85.0 912 85.7
Age in years M (SD) 47.4 (19.3) 47.6 (19.3) 47.7 (19.8) 47.8 (19.6)
Total 1,175 100.0 1,057 100.0 1,086 100.0 1,064 100.0
Note. Anxiety includes Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Separation Anxiety, Specific Phobia, and Social Anxiety Disorder. Depression includes Major Depressive Disorder, Major Depressive Episode, and Persistent Depressive Disorder. Other diagnoses include less frequently reported co-occurring diagnoses, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder and Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. The sum of diagnoses is greater than the total N because individuals with co-occurring diagnoses count towards more than one diagnostic group.
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Table 11.3. Comparison of Short Form Options: CAARS 2 Observer Impulsivity Scale

Form Number of Items Correlation with Full-Length Internal Consistency Goodness-of-Fit Statistics General Population & ADHD Group Differences
τ α ω X2 df CFI TLI RMSEA
(95% CI) 		SRMR Cliff’s d
(95% CI)
Full-Length 13 –– .91 .91 232.661*** 65 .973 .968 .072
(.066, .079) 		.045 .60 (.50, .69)
Short Form Options 7 .83 .88 .88 47.454*** 14 .988 .982 .076
(.062, .090) 		.034 .61 (.51, .70)
6 .81 .86 .86 41.435*** 9 .986 .977 .089
(.073, .107) 		.036 .63 (.54, .71)
5 .79 .85 .85 16.712** 5 .993 .986 .079
(.057, .103) 		.025 .65 (.55, .72)
4 .77 .82 .83 6.88 2 .996 .987 .085
(.052, 123) 		.020 .65 (.56, .73)
Note. N = 1,362. τ = Kendall’s tau correlation coefficient; guidelines for interpreting |τ|: weak ≤ .20; medium = .21 to .34; strong ≥ .35.; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual. All χ2 results are non-significant; p > .05.
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Table 11.4. IRT Parameters: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale Item Stem CAARS 2–Short: Calibration Sample CAARS 2–Short: Validation Sample Full-Length CAARS 2: Total Sample
a b1 b2 b3 a b1 b2 b3 a b1 b2 b3
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction Loses focus in conversations 2.47 -0.07 1.18 2.02 2.72 -0.02 1.26 2.07 3.92 0.05 0.77 1.34
Has trouble with multi-step tasks 2.65 0.30 1.23 2.06 2.70 0.40 1.44 2.17 3.69 -0.33 0.58 1.27
Difficulty prioritizing 3.24 0.17 1.09 1.78 3.14 0.26 1.19 1.79 2.72 0.01 0.99 1.84
Has difficulty paying attention to details 3.06 0.24 1.29 1.99 3.07 0.37 1.35 2.18 2.69 -0.05 1.01 1.78
Difficulty organizing 2.87 -0.09 0.98 1.71 2.61 0.03 1.04 1.80 2.31 -0.02 1.13 2.02
Makes careless mistakes 2.25 -0.23 1.26 2.16 2.35 -0.12 1.33 2.22 2.27 -0.26 0.77 1.70
Difficulty planning ahead 2.31 0.26 1.26 2.19 2.18 0.34 1.29 2.08 1.67 0.41 1.71 2.84
Misses deadlines 2.29 0.44 1.56 2.34 2.41 0.43 1.59 2.22 2.15 0.66 1.89 2.78
Forgets to do things 2.54 -0.39 1.10 1.92 2.71 -0.34 1.15 1.96 2.08 -0.30 1.25 2.20
Distracted easily 3.07 -0.35 0.72 1.45 2.65 -0.27 0.84 1.52 3.13 -0.32 0.75 1.47
Difficulty following instructions 3.20 0.33 1.40 2.25 3.33 0.48 1.45 2.21 2.86 0.40 1.48 2.33
Inattentive 2.61 0.29 1.31 2.06 2.93 0.35 1.38 2.25 2.61 0.06 1.14 1.97
Hyperactivity Distracts others 1.91 0.56 1.75 2.58 1.76 0.56 1.80 2.74 1.99 0.10 1.39 2.43
Taps hands or feet 1.60 -0.10 1.02 1.80 1.50 -0.06 1.09 2.00 2.60 -0.06 1.22 2.06
Feels restless when still 2.39 -0.38 0.74 1.75 2.42 -0.26 0.88 1.75 2.53 -0.07 1.09 1.92
Difficulty staying still 2.91 0.01 0.96 1.81 3.05 0.03 0.98 1.74 3.18 0.19 1.15 1.82
Moves around when they should not 3.49 0.18 1.08 1.84 3.83 0.18 1.12 1.84 2.26 0.30 1.47 2.32
Struggles with being quiet 1.72 0.26 1.36 2.38 1.55 0.31 1.58 2.70 2.75 -0.38 1.11 1.93
Leaves seat when they shouldn’t 2.04 0.80 1.90 2.67 2.10 0.84 1.96 2.94 1.66 -1.31 0.03 0.91
Impulsivity Speaks without thinking first 2.00 -0.28 1.22 2.28 2.16 -0.30 1.28 2.11 2.01 0.53 1.71 2.56
Intrudes 2.38 0.59 1.75 2.62 2.05 0.75 2.02 2.88 2.64 0.17 1.36 2.25
Risky behavior 1.84 0.38 1.64 2.64 1.80 0.43 1.67 2.79 1.70 -0.08 1.00 1.81
Difficulty with turn-taking 2.02 0.26 1.46 2.39 2.20 0.37 1.56 2.37 1.93 -0.19 1.15 2.09
Impulsive 2.00 -0.16 1.09 2.06 2.14 -0.22 1.15 1.99 3.51 -0.16 0.86 1.68
Interrupt others 2.31 0.14 1.38 2.33 2.52 0.22 1.42 2.29 2.89 0.29 1.35 2.12
Rushes 1.91 -0.29 1.26 2.34 2.18 -0.31 1.21 2.34 3.12 0.18 1.13 1.92
Emotional Dysregulation Difficulty controlling anger 2.03 0.07 1.37 2.36 1.86 0.14 1.45 2.54 2.38 0.35 1.37 2.21
Moods change quickly 2.35 -0.07 1.10 1.95 2.71 -0.05 1.10 1.91 2.45 -0.32 0.80 1.75
Easily frustrated 3.14 -0.20 0.86 1.68 3.38 -0.11 0.89 1.72 2.24 -0.19 1.31 2.23
Overreacts 2.94 -0.18 1.07 1.92 2.85 -0.14 1.17 1.91 2.10 0.29 1.31 2.21
Difficulty controlling emotions 2.31 -0.09 1.09 1.99 2.41 0.06 1.16 2.01 2.26 0.43 1.61 2.34
Difficulty calming down 2.70 0.07 1.05 1.96 2.93 0.06 1.18 1.90 2.68 -0.11 0.88 1.69
Negative Self-Concept Lacks confidence from past failures 2.88 0.03 0.80 1.44 3.72 0.09 0.79 1.35 2.02 -0.31 1.24 2.35
Lacks confidence 5.04 -0.33 0.53 1.16 3.77 -0.31 0.59 1.35 2.87 -0.16 1.12 1.92
Feels inferior 2.47 -0.29 0.72 1.59 2.21 -0.23 0.79 1.80 1.78 0.27 1.41 2.42
Avoids challenges 2.78 -0.17 0.84 1.58 2.68 -0.05 0.90 1.79 2.10 0.81 1.93 2.80
Self-critical 1.64 -1.33 -0.01 0.92 1.76 -1.27 0.09 0.90 2.76 0.30 1.35 2.16
Note. a refers to the discrimination (slope) parameter of an IRT model; b1, b2, and b3 refer to the threshold (location) parameters of an IRT model.
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Table 11.5. IRT Parameters: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale Item Stem CAARS 2–Short: Calibration Sample CAARS 2–Short: Validation Sample Full-Length CAARS 2: Total Sample
a b1 b2 b3 a b1 b2 b3 a b1 b2 b3
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction Loses focus in conversations 2.24 0.51 1.77 2.56 2.46 0.45 1.56 2.31 2.38 0.47 1.65 2.42
Has trouble with multi-step tasks 2.91 0.59 1.49 2.15 3.03 0.54 1.42 2.11 2.82 0.56 1.48 2.16
Difficulty prioritizing 3.82 0.36 1.11 1.77 3.37 0.30 1.17 1.94 3.71 0.32 1.13 1.85
Has difficulty paying attention to details 3.30 0.54 1.41 2.22 3.91 0.45 1.31 1.96 3.43 0.49 1.37 2.11
Difficulty organizing 2.75 0.28 1.19 1.95 3.02 0.20 1.20 1.95 2.93 0.23 1.18 1.94
Makes careless mistakes 2.26 0.30 1.52 2.28 2.74 0.22 1.43 2.13 2.36 0.25 1.50 2.24
Difficulty planning ahead 2.62 0.20 1.25 1.96 2.65 0.19 1.18 1.88 2.60 0.19 1.22 1.93
Misses deadlines 2.49 0.52 1.57 2.28 2.67 0.46 1.50 2.31 2.56 0.48 1.54 2.30
Forgets to do things 2.71 -0.11 1.34 2.10 2.77 -0.03 1.30 2.04 2.92 -0.07 1.30 2.03
Distracted easily 2.64 0.14 1.13 1.81 3.02 0.09 1.18 1.86 2.90 0.11 1.14 1.83
Difficulty following instructions 3.29 0.56 1.51 2.19 3.92 0.46 1.38 2.12 3.25 0.51 1.47 2.21
Inattentive 2.05 0.60 1.79 2.57 2.69 0.57 1.55 2.29 2.35 0.58 1.66 2.42
Hyperactivity Distracts others 1.84 0.72 1.82 2.75 1.53 0.77 1.97 2.82 1.96 0.69 1.75 2.57
Taps hands or feet 1.61 0.63 1.69 2.31 1.61 0.57 1.76 2.51 1.70 0.59 1.67 2.33
Appears restless when still 2.73 0.27 1.22 1.98 3.17 0.27 1.17 1.94 2.70 0.28 1.22 2.00
Difficulty staying still 4.03 0.47 1.31 2.01 4.73 0.46 1.27 1.89 3.73 0.48 1.32 1.99
Moves around when they should not 4.55 0.57 1.38 2.05 3.78 0.57 1.40 1.98 3.72 0.58 1.41 2.05
Struggles with being quiet 1.69 0.37 1.40 2.26 1.55 0.34 1.44 2.48 1.92 0.33 1.31 2.17
Leaves seat when they shouldn’t 2.34 1.06 2.01 2.75 2.26 0.97 1.91 2.73 2.48 0.99 1.90 2.66
Impulsivity Rushes 2.01 0.22 1.60 2.43 2.28 0.13 1.35 2.20 2.08 0.17 1.48 2.34
Interrupts others 3.01 0.44 1.32 2.11 3.09 0.37 1.48 2.08 3.28 0.40 1.37 2.07
Impulsive 2.11 0.17 1.35 2.19 2.13 0.21 1.34 2.22 2.02 0.19 1.37 2.26
Difficulty with turn-taking 3.07 0.51 1.39 2.21 2.92 0.61 1.53 2.19 3.18 0.54 1.44 2.18
Risky behavior 2.05 0.59 1.66 2.33 2.07 0.52 1.64 2.46 1.92 0.57 1.69 2.47
Intrudes 2.36 0.68 1.64 2.30 2.39 0.64 1.63 2.49 2.34 0.66 1.65 2.42
Speaks without thinking first 2.28 -0.04 1.24 2.03 2.38 -0.14 1.22 1.93 2.39 -0.10 1.22 1.96
Emotional Dysregulation Difficulty controlling anger 2.38 0.14 1.20 1.94 2.47 0.18 1.22 2.11 2.45 0.15 1.20 2.02
Moods change quickly 3.06 0.11 1.14 1.94 3.32 0.20 1.22 1.90 3.22 0.14 1.18 1.93
Easily frustrated 3.10 -0.03 1.02 1.78 3.14 -0.03 1.04 1.91 3.18 -0.04 1.03 1.84
Overreacts 3.45 0.04 1.04 1.70 3.41 0.03 1.12 1.84 3.47 0.03 1.07 1.77
Difficulty controlling emotions 2.64 0.09 1.28 2.04 2.80 0.11 1.26 2.01 2.76 0.09 1.27 2.03
Difficulty calming down 3.29 0.27 1.21 1.94 3.07 0.23 1.22 1.90 2.97 0.25 1.23 1.96
Negative Self-Concept Lacks confidence from past failures 3.47 0.32 1.14 1.77 3.57 0.29 1.17 1.74 3.94 0.30 1.13 1.71
Lacks confidence 3.74 0.03 0.93 1.59 3.44 0.04 1.00 1.65 3.23 0.04 0.98 1.65
Feels inferior 1.92 0.40 1.47 2.32 1.86 0.37 1.58 2.53 1.83 0.39 1.54 2.46
Avoids challenges 2.52 0.22 1.20 2.11 2.37 0.33 1.28 2.07 2.49 0.27 1.22 2.07
Self-critical 2.03 -0.28 0.89 1.73 1.77 -0.33 0.99 1.84 1.90 -0.30 0.94 1.79
Note. a refers to the discrimination (slope) parameter of an IRT model; b1, b2, and b3 refer to the threshold (location) parameters of an IRT model.
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Table 11.6. Correlations Between CAARS 2 and CAARS 2–Short Scales: Validation Sample

Scale Correlations: Full-Length & Short (τ)
Self-Report Observer
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .87 .86
Hyperactivity .88 .87
Impulsivity .84 .83
Emotional Dysregulation .90 .91
Negative Self-Concept .93 .89
Note. N = 1,057 Self-Report; N = 1,064 Observer; τ = tau correlation coefficient. All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |τ|: weak ≤ .20; medium = .21 to .34; strong ≥ .35
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Table 11.7. Internal Consistency of CAARS 2–Short and Full-Length CAARS 2 Content Scales: Validation Sample

Scale Self-Report Observer
Full Short Full Short
α ω α ω α ω α ω
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .97 .97 .95 .95 .97 .97 .94 .94
Hyperactivity .92 .92 .88 .88 .91 .92 .87 .87
Impulsivity .92 .92 .90 .90 .91 .91 .87 .87
Emotional Dysregulation .93 .93 .91 .91 .92 .92 .89 .89
Negative Self-Concept .90 .90 .85 .86 .91 .91 .88 .88
Note. N = 1,057 Self-Report; N = 1,064 Observer. α = coefficient alpha; ω = coefficient omega; Full = full-length CAARS 2; Short = CAARS 2–Short
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Table 11.8. Clinical Group Differences: CAARS 2–Short Validation Sample

Form Scale ADHD Inattentive vs. General Population ADHD Combined vs. General Population
Full-Length Short Form Full-Length Short Form
Cliff’s d 95% CI Cliff’s d 95% CI Cliff’s d 95% CI Cliff’s d 95% CI
Self-Report Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .81 .68, .89 .78 .63, .87 .79 .66, .87 .75 .62, .85
Hyperactivity .44 .24, .60 .45 .26, .60 .70 .56, .80 .71 .58, .80
Impulsivity .35 .13, .53 .38 .19, .57 .59 .41, .72 .60 .41, .74
Emotional Dysregulation .27 .05, .47 .26 .04, .46 .61 .44, .73 .59 .42, .71
Negative Self-Concept .62 .43, .76 .65 .47, .77 .65 .48, .77 .66 .49, .77
Observer Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .93 .90, .96 .90 .85, .94 .97 .94, .98 .95 .92, .97
Hyperactivity .63 .48, .75 .65 .52, .75 .95 .93, .97 .93 .90, .95
Impulsivity .71 .56, .81 .68 .53, .78 .94 .91, .96 .93 .90, .95
Emotional Dysregulation .52 .35, .65 .50 .33, .64 .84 .76, .89 .85 .78, .90
Negative Self-Concept .63 .49, .74 .65 .51, .76 .75 .64, .84 .76 .64, .84
Note. Self-Report: N = 858 General Population, N = 49 ADHD Inattentive, and N = 55 ADHD Combined; Observer: N = 912 General Population, N = 30 ADHD Inattentive, N = 36 ADHD Combined. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates greater endorsement by the listed ADHD group, relative to the General Population group.
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Table 11.9. Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model Fit Comparison: CAARS 2 and CAARS 2–Short

Form Version χ2 df CFI TLI RMSEA RMSEA 95% CI SRMR
Self-Report Full-Length CAARS 2 7328.74 2474 .960 .959 .043 .042, .044 .044
CAARS 2–Short 1536.57 619 .974 .972 .049 .047, .051 .039
Observer Full-Length CAARS 2 8546.31 2474 .954 .952 .045 .044, .046 .051
CAARS 2–Short 2142.23 619 .965 .962 .057 .055, .059 .047
Note. N = 1,057 Self-Report; N = 1,064 Observer. RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; SRMR = Standardized root mean square residual. All χ2 are significant at p < .001.
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Table 11.10. Internal Consistency and Standard Error: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report Normative Samples

CAARS 2–Short Scale Number of Items Age Group Combined Gender Male Female
N α ω SEM N α ω SEM N α ω SEM
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 12 18-24 110 .94 .94 2.38 55 .94 .94 2.45 55 .95 .95 2.30
25-29 110 .97 .97 1.83 55 .97 .97 1.84 55 .97 .97 1.74
30-39 220 .95 .96 2.12 110 .96 .96 2.10 110 .95 .95 2.16
40-49 220 .96 .96 1.89 110 .96 .96 2.02 110 .97 .97 1.75
50-59 220 .96 .96 2.06 110 .95 .95 2.18 110 .97 .97 1.81
60-69 220 .96 .96 2.07 110 .95 .95 2.23 110 .97 .97 1.84
70+ 220 .94 .94 2.48 94 .94 .94 2.35 126 .93 .93 2.62
Hyperactivity 7 18-24 110 .88 .89 3.36 55 .85 .86 3.76 55 .90 .91 3.04
25-29 110 .91 .92 2.90 55 .92 .92 2.79 55 .91 .91 2.92
30-39 220 .89 .89 3.30 110 .88 .89 3.34 110 .90 .90 3.09
40-49 220 .88 .89 3.34 110 .87 .87 3.57 110 .90 .91 3.07
50-59 220 .89 .89 3.24 110 .85 .86 3.71 110 .93 .93 2.60
60-69 220 .90 .90 3.15 110 .88 .88 3.45 110 .92 .92 2.84
70+ 220 .87 .87 3.63 94 .87 .87 3.55 126 .86 .87 3.66
Impulsivity 7 18-24 110 .90 .90 3.14 55 .90 .90 3.14 55 .90 .91 3.02
25-29 110 .90 .91 3.07 55 .89 .89 3.34 55 .92 .93 2.74
30-39 220 .88 .88 3.47 110 .89 .89 3.36 110 .86 .87 3.66
40-49 220 .88 .88 3.42 110 .88 .88 3.45 110 .89 .89 3.31
50-59 220 .89 .89 3.35 110 .86 .86 3.74 110 .91 .91 2.95
60-69 220 .90 .90 3.14 110 .87 .87 3.55 110 .92 .93 2.70
70+ 220 .86 .86 3.76 94 .87 .87 3.56 126 .83 .84 4.05
Emotional Dysregulation 6 18-24 110 .92 .92 2.87 55 .93 .93 2.63 55 .91 .91 3.07
25-29 110 .89 .89 3.30 55 .89 .89 3.25 55 .89 .89 3.30
30-39 220 .92 .92 2.75 110 .93 .93 2.61 110 .91 .92 2.91
40-49 220 .92 .92 2.82 110 .90 .90 3.10 110 .94 .94 2.46
50-59 220 .90 .91 3.06 110 .88 .88 3.43 110 .93 .93 2.62
60-69 220 .92 .92 2.79 110 .89 .89 3.30 110 .95 .95 2.31
70+ 220 .89 .89 3.28 94 .91 .92 2.90 126 .87 .87 3.55
Negative Self-Concept 5 18-24 110 .88 .88 3.51 55 .86 .86 3.74 55 .87 .87 3.55
25-29 110 .92 .92 2.86 55 .90 .91 3.02 55 .93 .93 2.65
30-39 220 .91 .91 2.99 110 .91 .91 3.03 110 .91 .91 2.98
40-49 220 .90 .90 3.14 110 .89 .89 3.25 110 .91 .91 2.94
50-59 220 .88 .88 3.41 110 .88 .89 3.39 110 .89 .90 3.21
60-69 220 .88 .88 3.41 110 .83 .85 .42 110 .92 .92 2.80
70+ 220 .81 .82 4.25 94 .83 .84 .37 126 .78 .80 4.50
Note. α = alpha. ω = omega. SEM = standard error of measurement.
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Table 11.11. Internal Consistency and Standard Error: CAARS 2–Short Observer Normative Samples

CAARS 2–Short Scale Number of Items Age Group Combined Gender Male Female
N α ω SEM N α ω SEM N α ω SEM
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 12 18-24 110 .95 .95 2.26 55 .94 .94 2.38 55 .95 .96 2.11
25-29 110 .97 .97 1.83 55 .96 .96 2.00 55 .97 .97 1.69
30-39 220 .97 .97 1.63 110 .98 .98 1.55 110 .97 .97 1.71
40-49 220 .97 .97 1.80 110 .97 .97 1.69 110 .96 .96 1.96
50-59 220 .97 .97 1.86 110 .97 .97 1.83 110 .97 .97 1.80
60-69 220 .96 .96 2.10 110 .96 .96 2.09 110 .95 .95 2.22
70+ 220 .95 .95 2.22 94 .95 .95 2.25 126 .95 .95 2.17
Hyperactivity 7 18-24 110 .92 .92 2.82 55 .89 .90 3.19 55 .94 .94 2.46
25-29 110 .94 .95 2.31 55 .94 .95 2.33 55 .75 .78 4.64
30-39 220 .95 .95 2.24 110 .94 .94 2.36 110 .96 .96 2.02
40-49 220 .93 .93 2.67 110 .93 .93 2.56 110 .91 .91 3.02
50-59 220 .92 .92 2.78 110 .92 .92 2.77 110 .92 .92 2.74
60-69 220 .91 .91 2.95 110 .91 .91 2.94 110 .90 .91 3.04
70+ 220 .91 .92 2.90 94 .87 .87 3.54 126 .93 .93 2.56
Impulsivity 7 18-24 110 .92 .92 2.85 55 .91 .91 3.05 55 .93 .93 2.60
25-29 110 .93 .93 2.69 55 .89 .89 3.25 55 .96 .96 1.99
30-39 220 .94 .94 2.51 110 .94 .94 2.42 110 .93 .93 2.57
40-49 220 .92 .92 2.76 110 .92 .92 2.88 110 .93 .93 2.69
50-59 220 .93 .93 2.61 110 .94 .94 2.35 110 .91 .92 2.87
60-69 220 .90 .90 3.11 110 .90 .90 3.14 110 .90 .90 3.18
70+ 220 .91 .91 2.96 94 .89 .89 3.28 126 .93 .93 2.72
Emotional Dysregulation 6 18-24 110 .93 .93 2.66 55 .91 .91 2.98 55 .94 .94 2.43
25-29 110 .94 .94 2.50 55 .94 .94 2.48 55 .94 .94 2.45
30-39 220 .93 .93 2.64 110 .95 .95 2.28 110 .91 .91 2.97
40-49 220 .95 .95 2.24 110 .95 .95 2.28 110 .95 .95 2.16
50-59 220 .95 .96 2.11 110 .96 .96 1.97 110 .95 .95 2.23
60-69 220 .92 .92 2.79 110 .92 .92 2.81 110 .91 .92 2.91
70+ 220 .93 .93 2.69 94 .93 .93 2.66 126 .93 .93 2.67
Negative Self-Concept 5 18-24 110 .86 .87 3.57 55 .84 .85 3.88 55 .88 .88 3.41
25-29 110 .89 .90 3.17 55 .87 .89 3.36 55 .92 .92 2.80
30-39 220 .89 .89 3.25 110 .89 .89 3.25 110 .89 .90 3.22
40-49 220 .89 .89 3.27 110 .89 .90 3.21 110 .89 .89 3.25
50-59 220 .84 .84 3.97 110 .79 .79 4.53 110 .85 .86 3.74
60-69 220 .89 .89 3.26 110 .88 .88 3.39 110 .91 .91 3.02
70+ 220 .86 .87 3.67 94 .89 .90 3.12 126 .82 .83 4.14
Note. α = alpha. ω = omega. SEM = standard error of measurement.
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Table 11.14. Test-Retest Reliability: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale Obtained
r 		Corrected
r 		Time 1 Time 2 Cohen’s
d
M Mdn SD M Mdn SD
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .85 .95 47.5 46 7.0 48.2 47 7.5 0.00
Hyperactivity .77 .90 47.4 45 7.4 47.7 45 7.9 0.04
Impulsivity .86 .92 48.0 46 8.0 48.3 46 9.2 0.04
Emotional Dysregulation .90 .87 49.4 46 10.7 49.4 47 10.6 0.00
Negative Self-Concept .83 .78 49.7 47 10.2 50.6 49 11.5 0.08
Note. N = 88. Time between administrations = 2 to 4 weeks (14 to 30 days). All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak=.20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive d-ratio values indicate higher scores at Time 2 than Time 1.
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Table 11.15. Test-Retest Reliability: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale Obtained
r 		Corrected
r 		Time 1 Time 2 Cohen’s
d
M Mdn SD M Mdn SD
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .85 .90 49.2 47 8.8 49.2 46 8.9 0.01
Hyperactivity .89 .89 48.5 45 9.7 48.8 45 10.7 0.03
Impulsivity .71 .79 48.1 45 8.6 48.1 46 9.0 0.00
Emotional Dysregulation .81 .82 49.1 45 10.0 49.0 47 9.6 -0.01
Negative Self-Concept .82 .76 49.9 46 11.0 50.0 47 11.0 0.01
Note. N = 61. Time between administrations = 2 to 4 weeks (14 to 30 days). All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive d-ratio values indicate higher scores at Time 2 than Time 1.
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Table 11.16. Inter-Rater Reliability Study 1 (Two Observers, Same Rater Type): CAARS 2–Short

CAARS 2–Short Scale Obtained
r 		Corrected
r 		Rater 1 Rater 2 Cohen’s
d
M Mdn SD M Mdn SD
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .69 .69 59.2 59 10.5 59.2 58 9.4 0.01
Hyperactivity .53 .41 55.7 54 11.7 57.5 56 11.8 0.16
Impulsivity .52 .40 57.0 57 11.8 55.6 49 11.7 -0.12
Emotional Dysregulation .75 .57 57.4 56 12.3 56.4 53 13.3 -0.08
Negative Self-Concept .71 .50 60.5 62 13.5 61.7 62 12.7 0.09
Note. N = 29. Reported p-values are for corrected r. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80.
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Table 11.17. Inter-Rater Reliability Study 2 (Different Rater Types: Self-Report and Observer): CAARS 2–Short

CAARS 2–Short Scale Obtained
r 		Corrected
r 		Self-Report Observer Cohen’s
d
M Mdn SD M Mdn SD
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .58 .42 64.4 64 12.5 62.1 61 12.4 -0.18
Hyperactivity .52 .35 61.1 61 12.7 58.0 57 12.9 -0.25
Impulsivity .51 .37 61.1 61 12.5 56.3 55 11.9 -0.39
Emotional Dysregulation .50 .40 59.3 60 11.8 57.5 56 11.3 -0.16
Negative Self-Concept .54 .44 60.3 62 10.2 63.3 63 12.8 0.26
Note. N = 211. All correlations significant at p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive d-ratio values indicate higher scores for the Observer than Self-Report.
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Table 11.18. Inter-Rater Reliability Study 2 (Different Rater Types: Two Types of Observers): CAARS 2–Short

CAARS 2–Short Scale Obtained
r 		Corrected
r 		Observer 1 Observer 2 Cohen’s
d
M Mdn SD M Mdn SD
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .64 .48 58.4 56 12.7 60.6 61 11.9 0.18
Hyperactivity .43 .25 56.8 55 13.1 60.2 58 14.0 0.26
Impulsivity .50 .40 55.3 54 10.7 57.6 55 12.3 0.21
Emotional Dysregulation .60 .44 56.9 56 12.4 60.8 62 12.5 0.32
Negative Self-Concept .53 .39 59.0 57 11.5 60.8 60 13.0 0.14
Note. N = 47. All obtained correlations significant at p < .01; p-values in table above refer to the corrected correlation coefficients. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive d-ratio values indicate higher scores for Observer 2 than Observer 1.
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Table 11.19a. Differences between General Population and ADHD Groups: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale GenPop
(N = 197) 		ADHDin
(N = 96) 		ADHDc
(N = 101) 		F
(2, 275) 		η2 Tukey’s HSD Post-Hoc Tests
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 48.8 70.3 72.6 305.27 .61 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 8.5 10.3 9.2
Hyperactivity M 48.9 58.9 71.3 193.35 .50 ADHDc > ADHDin > GenPop
SD 8.7 10.2 10.0
Impulsivity M 48.7 70.3 72.6 184.30 .48 ADHDc > ADHDin > GenPop
SD 8.7 10.3 9.2
Emotional Dysregulation M 48.9 58.9 71.3 113.55 .37 ADHDc > ADHDin > GenPop
SD 8.7 10.2 10.0
Negative Self-Concept M 49.6 60.1 62.6 67.46 .26 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 10.3 9.3 10.8
Note. All F tests statistically significant, p < .001. GenPop = individuals from the general population; ADHDin = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Presentation; ADHDc = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Combined Presentation. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. The > symbol indicates that the post-hoc difference is statistically significant at p < .01, and a comma indicates no significant difference between groups.
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Table 11.19b. Differences between General Population and ADHD Groups: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report Effect Sizes

CAARS-Short Scale GenPop vs. ADHDin GenPop vs. ADHDc ADHDin vs. ADHDc
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 2.37 2.74 0.23
Hyperactivity 1.09 2.45 1.23
Impulsivity 2.35 2.71 0.23
Emotional Dysregulation 1.10 2.47 1.24
Negative Self-Concept 1.06 1.25 0.25
Note. GenPop = individuals from the general population (N = 197); ADHDin = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Presentation (N = 96); ADHDc = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Combined Presentation (N = 101). Values presented are Cohen’s d effect sizes; guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Cohen’s d values for which the corresponding post-hoc test was statistically significant (p < .01) are shaded in gray. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that the second group listed scored higher than the first group listed.
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Table 11.20a. Differences between General Population and ADHD Groups: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale GenPop
(N = 139) 		ADHDin
(N = 63) 		ADHDc
(N = 76) 		F
(2, 275) 		η2 Tukey’s HSD Post-Hoc Tests
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 48.6 66.1 64.7 102.85 .43 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 8.1 10.0 11.9
Hyperactivity M 49.3 58.3 63.2 45.44 .25 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 9.2 13.3 10.8
Impulsivity M 49.9 55.3 59.9 24.64 .15 ADHDc > ADHDin, GenPop
SD 9.3 9.9 11.8
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.8 56.1 59.3 21.82 .14 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 9.7 11.3 11.4
Negative Self-Concept M 49.5 63.2 61.9 47.43 .26 ADHDin, ADHDc > GenPop
SD 9.2 12.8 12.9
Note. All F tests statistically significant, p < .001. GenPop=individuals from the general population; ADHDin = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Presentation; ADHDc = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Combined Presentation. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. The > symbol indicates that the post-hoc difference is statistically significant at p < .01, and a comma indicates no significant difference between groups.
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Table 11.20b. Differences between General Population and ADHD Groups: CAARS 2–Short Observer Effect Sizes

CAARS-Short Scale GenPop vs. ADHDin GenPop vs. ADHDc ADHDin vs. ADHDc
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 2.01 1.67 -0.13
Hyperactivity 0.85 1.43 0.42
Impulsivity 0.57 0.98 0.42
Emotional Dysregulation 0.62 0.93 0.28
Negative Self-Concept 1.33 1.17 -0.11
Note. GenPop = individuals from the general population (N = 139); ADHDin = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Presentation (N = 63); ADHDc = individuals diagnosed with ADHD Combined Presentation (N = 76). Values presented are Cohen’s d effect sizes; guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Cohen’s d values for which the corresponding post-hoc test was statistically significant (p < .01) are shaded in grey. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that the second group listed scored higher than the first group listed.
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Table 11.21a. Differences between ADHD, Depression/Anxiety, and General Population Groups: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale GenPop
(N = 245) 		ADHD
(N = 122) 		Dep/Anx
(N = 123) 		F
(2, 541) 		η2 Tukey’s HSD Post-Hoc Tests
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 49.2 70.6 55.7 223.85 .48 ADHD > Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 8.6 9.5 9.8
Hyperactivity M 49.5 64.0 54.0 80.52 .25 ADHD > Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 9.4 12.0 10.3
Impulsivity M 49.2 65.7 54.0 104.40 .30 ADHD > Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 9.5 11.7 10.6
Emotional Dysregulation M 48.9 59.8 57.6 57.14 .19 ADHD, Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 9.4 10.5 11.5
Negative Self-Concept M 50.0 59.7 61.2 64.08 .21 ADHD, Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 9.6 11.1 10.4
Note. All F tests statistically significant, p < .001. GenPop = individuals from the general population; Dep/Anx = individuals with a diagnosis of a Depressive Disorder and/or Anxiety Disorder. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. The > symbol indicates that the post-hoc difference is statistically significant at p < .01, and a comma indicates no significant difference between groups.
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Table 11.21b. Differences between ADHD, Depression/Anxiety, and General Population Groups: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report Effect Sizes

CAARS 2–Short Scale ADHD vs. GenPop Dep/Anx vs. GenPop ADHD vs. Dep/Anx
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 2.41 0.72 1.56
Hyperactivity 1.41 0.47 0.90
Impulsivity 1.62 0.49 1.05
Emotional Dysregulation 1.11 0.86 0.20
Negative Self-Concept 0.95 1.13 -0.14
Note. GenPop = individuals from the general population (N = 245); Dep/Anx = individuals with a diagnosis of a Depressive Disorder and/or Anxiety Disorder (N = 121). Values presented are Cohen’s d effect sizes; guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Cohen’s d values for which the corresponding post-hoc test was statistically significant (p < .01) are shaded in grey. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that the first group listed scored higher than the second group listed.
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Table 11.22a. Differences between ADHD, Depression/Anxiety, and General Population Groups: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale GenPop
(N = 177) 		ADHD
(N = 80) 		Dep/Anx
(N = 97) 		F
(2, 351) 		η2 Tukey’s HSD Post-Hoc Tests
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 48.0 67.3 54.4 107.38 .38 ADHD > Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 8.4 10.6 11.2
Hyperactivity M 48.9 61.7 51.8 47.67 .21 ADHD > Dep/Anx, GenPop
SD 8.6 12.0 9.6
Impulsivity M 49.3 59.2 51.0 27.60 .14 ADHD > Dep/Anx, GenPop
SD 8.9 12.0 10.1
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.5 58.1 55.3 20.78 .11 ADHD, Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 10.5 11.0 10.8
Negative Self-Concept M 48.9 60.4 63.0 58.54 .25 ADHD, Dep/Anx > GenPop
SD 9.7 12.9 13.0
Note. GenPop = individuals from the general population; Dep/Anx = individuals with a diagnosis of a Depressive Disorder and/or Anxiety Disorder. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s d (Cohen, 1988): small effect size = .20; medium effect size = .50; large effect size = .80. Guidelines for interpreting η2: small effect size = .01; medium effect size = .06; large effect size = .14. The > symbol indicates that the post-hoc difference is statistically significant at p < .01, and a comma indicates no significant difference between groups.
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Table 11.22b. Differences between ADHD, Depression/Anxiety, and General Population Groups: CAARS 2–Short Observer Effect Sizes

CAARS-Short Scale ADHD vs. GenPop Dep/Anx vs. GenPop ADHD vs. Dep/Anx
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 2.12 0.67 1.19
Hyperactivity 1.32 0.33 0.92
Impulsivity 1.00 0.19 0.75
Emotional Dysregulation 0.81 0.55 0.25
Negative Self-Concept 1.08 1.29 -0.20
Note. GenPop = individuals from the general population (N = 177); ADHD = individuals with a diagnosis of ADHD (N = 80); Dep/Anx = individuals with a diagnosis of a Depressive Disorder and/or Anxiety Disorder (N = 97). Values presented are Cohen’s d effect sizes; guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Cohen’s d values for which the corresponding post-hoc test was statistically significant (p < .01) are shaded in grey. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that the first group listed scored higher than the second group listed.
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Table 11.23. Classification Accuracy Statistics: CAARS 2–Short

Form Overall Correct Classification Rate (%) Sensitivity
(%) 		Specificity
(%) 		Positive Predictive Value
(%) 		Negative Predictive Value
(%) 		Kappa
Self-Report 89.7 88.1 91.3 90.9 88.5 .79
Observer 84.1 87.3 80.9 82.1 86.4 .68
Note. Predictor Scales = CAARS 2–Short Content Scales. Classification accuracy is based on classifying individuals with ADHD and individuals in the general population.
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Table 11.24. Classification Accuracy Statistics Adjusted for Base Rates: CAARS 2–Short

Form 10% Base Rate 60% Base Rate 70% Base Rate 80% Base Rate
PPV (%) NPV (%) PPV (%) NPV (%) PPV (%) NPV (%) PPV (%) NPV (%)
Self-Report 66.8 76.5 92.4 86.5 93.4 84.6 94.2 82.8
Observer 47.8 96.9 84.6 84.2 86.5 81.9 88.0 79.9
Note. PPV = Positive Predictive Value. NPV = Negative Predictive Value. Predictor Scales = CAARS 2–Short Content Scales. Classification accuracy is based on classifying individuals with ADHD and individuals in the general population.
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Table 11.26. Differential Test Functioning Effect Sizes by Gender

CAARS 2–Short Scale Self-Report Observer
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .00 .00
Hyperactivity .03 .02
Impulsivity -.01 .05
Emotional Dysregulation -.01 .04
Negative Self-Concept -.06 .01
Note. Values presented are expected test score standardized differences (ETSSD); guidelines for interpreting |ETSSD|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive ETSSD values indicate that females had higher scores than males who had the same level of the construct being measured.
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Table 11.27. Group Differences by Gender (Male vs. Female): CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale Male
(N = 463) 		Female
(N = 463) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 924) 		P Partial η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 50.8 48.6 0.23 12.18 .001 .01
SD 9.8 9.2
Hyperactivity M 50.7 48.5 0.23 12.52 < .001 .01
SD 9.9 9.5
Impulsivity M 51.1 48.3 0.29 19.67 < .001 .02
SD 10.1 9.1
Emotional Dysregulation M 50.0 49.1 0.09 2.07 .151 .00
SD 9.7 9.7
Negative Self-Concept M 49.6 49.9 -0.03 0.16 .685 .00
SD 10.0 9.7
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size=.01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates higher scores for males than females.
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Table 11.28. Group Differences by Gender (Male vs. Female): CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale Male
(N = 444) 		Female
(N = 444) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 886) 		P Partial η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 49.9 49.3 0.07 0.94 .332 .00
SD 9.9 9.8
Hyperactivity M 49.7 49.4 0.03 0.22 .642 .00
SD 9.4 10.1
Impulsivity M 50.0 49.1 0.09 1.81 .178 .00
SD 9.5 10.1
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.9 49.9 -0.01 0.01 .934 .00
SD 10.0 10.3
Negative Self-Concept M 48.4 50.9 -0.26 14.46 < .001 .02
SD 9.2 10.4
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size=.01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates higher scores for males than females.
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Table 11.29. Measurement Invariance by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (Hispanic/Black vs. White): CAARS 2–Short

Form Model χ2 df RMSEA CFI TLI SRMR Comparison Satorra-Bentler χ2 df ∆ CFI
Self-Report Configural 3602.11*** 1238 .047 .973 .971 .043 ––
Weak 3635.97*** 1273 .046 .973 .972 .043 configural vs. weak 36.25 35 .000
Strong 3607.36*** 1305 .045 .974 .974 .043 weak vs. strong 56.78 32 .001
Strict 3546.37*** 1337 .044 .975 .975 .043 strong vs. strict 48.65* 32 .001
Observer Configural 474.66*** 1238 .058 .948 .944 .051 ––
Weak 4754.45*** 1268 .057 .949 .946 .051 configural vs. weak 26.37 30 .001
Strong 430.51*** 1300 .052 .956 .955 .051 weak vs. strong 39.70 32 .007
Strict 4251.14*** 1332 .051 .957 .957 .051 strong vs. strict 7.99*** 32 .001
Note. N = 415 Black and Hispanic individuals; N = 1,331 White individuals for Self-Report. N = 431 Black and Hispanic individuals; N = 1,280 White individuals for Observer. RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; SRMR = Standardized root mean square residual; ∆CFI = change in CFI. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
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Table 11.30. Differential Test Functioning Effect Sizes by U.S. Race/Ethnicity

CAARS 2–Short Scale Hispanic/​White Comparisons Black/​White Comparisons
Self-Report Observer Self-Report Observer
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction -.02 -.01 -.01 -.02
Hyperactivity -.02 .02 -.02 .00
Impulsivity -.05 -.03 -.09 -.07
Emotional Dysregulation -.01 .02 -.02 -.03
Negative Self-Concept -.01 -.03 -.12 -.07
Note. Values presented are expected test score standardized differences (ETSSD); guidelines for interpreting |ETSSD|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive ETSSD values indicate that Black or Hispanic individuals received higher scores than White individuals who had the same level of the construct being measured.
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Table 11.31. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Hispanic): CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 93) 		Hispanic
(N = 93) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 184) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 51.8 48.8 0.30 4.19 .042 .02
SD 11.5 8.3
Hyperactivity M 51.6 48.4 0.34 5.19 .024 .03
SD 10.8 8.3
Impulsivity M 51.1 47.8 0.36 6.09 .014 .03
SD 10.4 7.4
Emotional Dysregulation M 50.8 47.9 0.31 4.30 .039 .02
SD 10.5 8.5
Negative Self-Concept M 52.6 48.4 0.43 8.35 .004 .04
SD 11.1 8.2
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Hispanic individuals.
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Table 11.32. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Hispanic): CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 105) 		Hispanic
(N = 105) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 204) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 47.9 49.5 -0.19 1.79 .182 .01
SD 8.4 8.5
Hyperactivity M 47.7 49.9 -0.24 2.91 .089 .01
SD 8.9 10.1
Impulsivity M 49.1 49.2 -0.01 0.01 .918 .00
SD 9.2 8.4
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.1 48.4 0.08 0.32 .571 .00
SD 9.3 7.9
Negative Self-Concept M 48.9 48.8 0.02 0.01 .908 .00
SD 8.4 7.7
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Hispanic individuals.
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Table 11.33. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Black): CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 138) 		Black
(N = 138) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 274) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 51.1 48.2 0.29 5.82 .016 .02
SD 10.6 9.0
Hyperactivity M 51.2 47.8 0.36 9.01 .003 .03
SD 10.7 8.1
Impulsivity M 50.7 47.7 0.32 7.00 .009 .02
SD 10.5 8.3
Emotional Dysregulation M 50.7 48.6 0.21 3.04 .083 .01
SD 10.3 9.7
Negative Self-Concept M 53.0 45.8 0.71 34.33 < .001 .11
SD 11.1 9.4
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Black individuals.
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Table 11.34. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Black): CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 152) 		Black
(N = 152) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 302) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 49.0 49.4 -0.04 0.11 .736 .00
SD 9.7 10.6
Hyperactivity M 48.7 48.8 -0.01 0.01 .935 .00
SD 9.2 9.7
Impulsivity M 49.7 49.0 0.07 0.33 .564 .00
SD 9.3 10.9
Emotional Dysregulation M 50.9 49.2 0.17 2.07 .151 .01
SD 10.0 11.4
Negative Self-Concept M 49.1 47.5 0.17 2.25 .135 .01
SD 10.2 9.0
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Black individuals.
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Table 11.35. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Asian): CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 52) 		Asian
(N = 52) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 102) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 50.4 49.6 0.08 0.18 .673 .00
SD 10.4 10.4
Hyperactivity M 51.2 49.4 0.17 0.72 .399 .01
SD 11.2 10.9
Impulsivity M 50.1 50.5 -0.04 0.04 .836 .00
SD 10.4 11.0
Emotional Dysregulation M 50.5 48.8 0.17 0.77 .383 .01
SD 10.1 9.5
Negative Self-Concept M 51.9 48.7 0.31 2.41 .124 .02
SD 11.5 9.1
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Asian individuals.
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Table 11.36. Group Difference by U.S. Race/Ethnicity (White vs. Asian): CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale White
(N = 35) 		Asian
(N = 35) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 68) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 46.8 47.6 -0.10 0.18 .675 .00
SD 7.7 8.0
Hyperactivity M 46.4 49.8 -0.41 2.85 .096 .04
SD 6.0 10.1
Impulsivity M 46.6 49.9 -0.40 2.69 .106 .04
SD 6.7 9.6
Emotional Dysregulation M 47.6 49.2 -0.17 0.51 .477 .01
SD 9.8 9.2
Negative Self-Concept M 50.5 48.2 0.25 1.08 .302 .02
SD 11.6 6.2
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for White individuals than Asian individuals.
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Table 11.38. Differential Test Functioning Effect Sizes by Country of Residence

CAARS 2–Short Scale Self-Report Observer
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction -.01 -.01
Hyperactivity -.03 .01
Impulsivity -.01 .00
Emotional Dysregulation .03 -.01
Negative Self-Concept .06 -.03
Note. Values presented are expected test score standardized differences (ETSSD); guidelines for interpreting |ETSSD|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size=0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive ETSSD values indicate that Canadians received higher scores than Americans who had the same level of the construct being measured.
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Table 11.39. Group Differences by Country of Residence: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale U.S.
(N = 86) 		Canada
(N = 86) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 170) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 50.9 49.2 0.19 1.54 .216 .01
SD 10.3 7.7
Hyperactivity M 51.2 47.6 0.39 6.40 .012 .04
SD 11.2 6.9
Impulsivity M 51.2 48.8 0.27 3.22 .075 .02
SD 10.0 8.1
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.7 49.5 0.03 0.03 .855 .00
SD 8.5 9.1
Negative Self-Concept M 51.8 50.2 0.17 1.18 .279 .01
SD 10.4 9.1
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for individuals from the U.S. than individuals from Canada.
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Table 11.40. Group Differences by Country of Residence: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale U.S.
(N = 81) 		Canada
(N = 81) 		Cohen’s d F
(1, 160) 		p η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction M 49.5 48.7 0.10 0.39 .535 .00
SD 9.9 8.3
Hyperactivity M 48.5 48.4 0.02 0.01 .907 .00
SD 8.8 8.0
Impulsivity M 49.2 48.3 0.10 0.43 .514 .00
SD 8.3 8.9
Emotional Dysregulation M 49.5 49.0 0.06 0.13 .717 .00
SD 9.7 8.1
Negative Self-Concept M 49.8 49.1 0.07 0.19 .660 .00
SD 10.4 8.5
Note. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. A positive Cohen’s d value indicates that scores were higher for individuals from the U.S. than individuals from Canada.
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Table 11.41. Measurement Invariance by Education Level: CAARS 2–Short

Form Model χ2 df RMSEA CFI TLI SRMR Comparison Satorra-Bentler χ2 df ∆ CFI
Self-Report Configural 4755.71*** 1238 .051 .970 .968 .041 ––
Weak 4796.63*** 1273 .050 .970 .969 .041 configural vs. weak 34.98 35 .000
Strong 4688.43*** 1305 .048 .971 .970 .041 weak vs. strong 38.16 32 .001
Strict 4688.11*** 1337 .047 .971 .971 .041 strong vs. strict 85.94*** 32 .000
Observer Configural 5556.52*** 1238 .057 .949 .946 .048 ––
Weak 5596.72*** 1268 .056 .949 .947 .048 configural vs. weak 37.16 30 .000
Strong 5136.21*** 1300 .052 .955 .954 .048 weak vs. strong 39.57 32 .006
Strict 5142.45*** 1332 .052 .955 .955 .048 strong vs. strict 109.40*** 32 .000
Note. N = 710 individuals with high school education or less (EL 1 and EL 2); N = 1,515 individuals with post-secondary education (EL 3, EL 4, and EL 5) for Self-Report. N = 796 individuals with high school education or less (EL 1 and EL 2); N = 1,134 individuals with post-secondary education (EL 3, EL 4, and EL 5) for Observer. RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; SRMR = Standardized root mean square residual; RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; ∆CFI = change in CFI. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
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Table 11.42. Differential Test Functioning Effect Sizes by Education Level

CAARS 2–Short Scale Self-Report Observer
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction .00 -.03
Hyperactivity .02 .03
Impulsivity .03 -.01
Emotional Dysregulation .01 .01
Negative Self-Concept .07 .01
Note. Values presented are expected test score standardized differences (ETSSD); guidelines for interpreting |ETSSD|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80. Positive ETSSD values indicate that higher scores would be observed for individuals who do not have post-secondary education (EL 1 and EL 2) relative to individuals who have post-secondary education (EL 3, EL 4, and EL 5) with the same level of the construct being measured.
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Table 11.43a. Group Differences by Education Level: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report

CAARS 2–Short Scale EL 1
(N = 127) 		EL 2
(N = 378) 		EL 3
(N = 385) 		EL 4
(N = 281) 		EL 5
(N = 149) 		F
(4, 1298) 		p Partial η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction EMM 56.8 55.2 56.1 55.7 55.8 0.93 .448 .00
SD 11.8 16.0 15.0 13.5 11.3
Hyperactivity EMM 55.3 52.8 53.9 52.8 52.8 2.28 .059 .01
SD 12.2 16.6 15.6 14.0 11.7
Impulsivity EMM 55.9 53.0 53.9 53.8 53.8 2.16 .072 .01
SD 12.2 16.6 15.6 14.0 11.7
Emotional Dysregulation EMM 57.2 a 54.1 a,b 54.0 a,b 52.9 b 53.6 a,b 4.47 .001 .01
SD 12.3 16.8 15.7 14.1 11.9
Negative Self-Concept EMM 55.0 54.2 54.8 55.2 54.3 0.51 .726 .00
SD 12.0 16.3 15.3 13.8 11.5
Note. EMM = estimated marginal means. EL = Education level; EL 1 = No high school diploma; EL 2 = High school diploma/GED; EL 3 = Some college or associate degree; EL 4 = Bachelor’s degree; EL 5 = Graduate or professional degree. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. EMMs without a common superscript letter differ (p < .01) as per Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests; values with common superscript letters are not significantly different.
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Table 11.43b. Group Differences by Education Level: CAARS 2–Short Self-Report Effect Sizes

CAARS 2–Short Scale EL 1
vs.
EL 2 		EL 1
vs.
EL 3 		EL 1
vs.
EL 4 		EL 1
vs.
EL 5 		EL 2
vs.
EL 3 		EL 2
vs.
EL 4 		EL 2
vs.
EL 5 		EL 3
vs.
EL 4 		EL 3
vs.
EL 5 		EL 4
vs.
EL 5
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 0.11 0.04 0.09 0.08 -0.06 -0.03 -0.04 0.03 0.02 -0.01
Hyperactivity 0.16 0.09 0.19 0.21 -0.07 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.07 0.00
Impulsivity 0.18 0.14 0.15 0.18 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00
Emotional Dysregulation 0.20 0.22 0.32 0.30 0.01 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.03 -0.05
Negative Self-Concept 0.05 0.01 -0.01 0.06 -0.03 -0.06 -0.01 -0.03 0.03 0.07
Note. EL = Education level; EL 1 = No high school diploma; EL 2 = High school diploma/GED; EL 3 = Some college or associate degree; EL 4 = Bachelor’s degree; EL 5 = Graduate or professional degree. Values reported are Cohen’s d effect size estimates; Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80.
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Table 11.44a. Mean Group Differences by Education Level: CAARS 2–Short Observer

CAARS 2–Short Scale EL 1
(N = 130) 		EL 2
(N = 386) 		EL 3
(N = 380) 		EL 4
(N = 268) 		EL 5
(N = 156) 		F
(4, 1303) 		p Partial η2
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction EMM 56.2 53.4 53.3 52.9 53.3 2.64 .032 .01
SD 12.6 17.1 15.9 14.2 11.9
Hyperactivity EMM 53.7 51.7 51.7 51.5 52.2 1.26 .284 .00
SD 12.9 17.5 16.3 14.5 12.2
Impulsivity EMM 53.7 50.8 50.6 50.3 51.5 2.87 .022 .01
SD 12.8 17.4 16.2 14.5 12.2
Emotional Dysregulation EMM 54.9a 52.0 a,b 51.7 a,b 51.1 b 52.7 a,b 3.44 .008 .01
SD 12.9 17.5 16.3 14.5 12.2
Negative Self-Concept EMM 56.3 53.7 54.9 53.9 54.4 2.30 .056 .01
SD 12.2 16.6 15.4 13.7 11.5
Note. EMM = estimated marginal means. EL = Education level; EL 1 = No high school diploma; EL 2 = High school diploma/GED; EL 3 = Some college or associate degree; EL 4 = Bachelor’s degree; EL 5 = Graduate or professional degree. Guidelines for interpreting η2: negligible effect size < .01; small effect size = .01 to .059; medium effect size = .06 to .13; large effect size ≥ .14. EMMs without a common superscript letter differ (p < .01) as per Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests; values with common superscript letters are not significantly different.
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Table 11.44b. Effect Sizes of Mean Group Differences by Education Level: CAARS 2–Short Observer Effect Sizes

CAARS 2–Short Scale EL 1
vs.
EL 2 		EL 1
vs.
EL 3 		EL 1
vs.
EL 4 		EL 1
vs.
EL 5 		EL 2
vs.
EL 3 		EL 2
vs.
EL 4 		EL 2
vs.
EL 5 		EL 3
vs.
EL 4 		EL 3
vs.
EL 5 		EL 4
vs.
EL 5
Inattention/​Executive Dysfunction 0.17 0.19 0.24 0.24 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00 -0.02
Hyperactivity 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.12 0.00 0.01 -0.03 0.02 -0.03 -0.05
Impulsivity 0.18 0.20 0.24 0.18 0.01 0.03 -0.04 0.02 -0.06 -0.09
Emotional Dysregulation 0.18 0.21 0.27 0.18 0.02 0.06 -0.04 0.04 -0.06 -0.12
Negative Self-Concept 0.17 0.10 0.18 0.16 -0.08 -0.01 -0.05 0.07 0.03 -0.04
Note. EL = Education level; EL 1 = No high school diploma; EL 2 = High school diploma/GED; EL 3 = Some college or associate degree; EL 4 = Bachelor’s degree; EL 5 = Graduate or professional degree. Values presented are Cohen’s d effect size estimates; Guidelines for interpreting Cohen’s |d|: negligible effect size < 0.20; small effect size = 0.20 to 0.49; medium effect size = 0.50 to 0.79; large effect size ≥ 0.80.