Manual

CAARS 2 Manual

Chapter 12: CAARS 2–ADHD Index, Tables

Table 12.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Rated Individuals: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Self-Report Training and Validation Samples

Demographic		Training				Validation
		General Population		ADHD		General Population		ADHD
		N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%
Gender	Female	95	54.0	94	53.4	24	35.3	24	35.3
	Male	81	46.0	81	46.0	44	64.7	43	63.2
	Other	0	0.0	1	0.6	0	0.0	1	1.5
U.S. Race/Ethnicity	Asian	3	1.7	1	0.6	1	1.5	1	1.5
	Black	9	5.1	4	2.3	1	1.5	0	0.0
	Hispanic	9	5.1	7	4.0	6	8.8	7	10.3
	White	122	69.3	130	73.9	51	75.0	45	66.2
	Other	4	2.3	7	4.0	2	2.9	2	2.9
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Not a visible minority	29	16.5	21	11.9	6	8.8	12	17.6
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Visible minority	0	0.0	6	3.4	1	1.5	1	1.5
U.S. Region	Northeast	28	15.9	30	17.0	12	17.6	16	23.5
	Midwest	37	21.0	36	20.5	8	11.8	13	19.1
	South	48	27.3	48	27.3	31	45.6	15	22.1
	West	34	19.3	34	19.3	10	14.7	11	16.2
Canadian Region	Central	17	9.7	13	7.4	2	2.9	7	10.3
	East	2	1.1	3	1.7	1	1.5	2	2.9
	West	10	5.7	9	5.1	4	5.9	4	5.9
Education Level	No high school diploma	2	1.1	2	1.1	0	0.0	0	0.0
	High school diploma/GED	22	12.5	22	12.5	10	14.7	10	14.7
	Some college or associate degree	70	39.8	70	39.8	24	35.3	24	35.3
	Bachelor’s degree	51	29.0	45	25.6	21	30.9	20	29.4
	Graduate or professional degree	31	17.6	37	21.0	13	19.1	14	20.6
Diagnosis	ADHD Inattentive	0	0.0	81	46.0	0	0.0	31	45.6
	ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0
	ADHD Combined	0	0.0	94	53.4	0	0.0	37	54.4
	Anxiety	0	0.0	47	26.7	0	0.0	17	25.0
	Depression	0	0.0	51	29.0	0	0.0	17	25.0
	Other Diagnosis	0	0.0	39	22.2	0	0.0	13	19.1
	No Diagnosis	176	100.0	0	0.0	68	100.0	0	0.0
Age in years M(SD)		36.7 (13.3)		36.5 (13.0)		35.5 (12.3)		35.5 (12.4)
Total		176	100.0	176	100.0	68	100.0	68	100.0

Note. Anxiety includes Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, and Social Anxiety Disorder. Depression includes Major Depressive Disorder, Major Depressive Episode, and Persistent Depressive Disorder. Other diagnoses include less frequently reported co-occurring diagnoses, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder and Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. The sum of diagnoses is greater than the total N because individuals with co-occurring diagnoses counted towards more than one diagnostic group.

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Table 12.2. Demographic Characteristics of the Rated Individuals: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Observer Training and Validation Samples

Demographic		Training				Validation
		General Population		ADHD		General Population		ADHD
		N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%
Gender	Female	59	49.2	57	47.5	20	48.8	20	48.8
	Male	61	50.8	61	50.8	21	51.2	21	51.2
	Other	0	0.0	2	1.7	0	0.0	0	0.0
U.S. Race/Ethnicity	Asian	2	1.7	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0
	Black	1	0.8	2	1.7	1	2.4	1	2.4
	Hispanic	9	7.5	9	7.5	5	12.2	3	7.3
	White	81	67.5	90	75.0	27	65.9	29	70.7
	Other	4	3.3	2	1.7	0	0.0	2	4.9
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Not a visible minority	21	17.5	12	10.0	7	17.1	5	12.2
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Visible minority	2	1.7	5	4.2	1	2.4	1	2.4
U.S. Region	Northeast	17	14.2	28	23.3	10	24.4	9	22.0
	Midwest	25	20.8	30	25.0	11	26.8	7	17.1
	South	36	30.0	28	23.3	6	14.6	11	26.8
	West	19	15.8	17	14.2	6	14.6	8	19.5
Canadian Region	Central	9	7.5	12	10.0	6	14.6	2	4.9
	East	3	2.5	3	2.5	1	2.4	1	2.4
	West	11	9.2	2	1.7	1	2.4	3	7.3
Education Level	No high school diploma	0	0.0	0	0.0	1	2.4	1	2.4
	High school diploma/GED	15	12.5	15	12.5	4	9.8	4	9.8
	Some college or associate degree	52	43.3	52	43.3	18	43.9	18	43.9
	Bachelor’s degree	29	24.2	23	19.2	12	29.3	12	29.3
	Graduate or professional degree	24	20.0	30	25.0	6	14.6	6	14.6
Diagnosis	ADHD Inattentive	0	0.0	50	41.7	0	0.0	15	36.6
	ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0
	ADHD Combined	0	0.0	70	58.3	0	0.0	26	63.4
	Anxiety	0	0.0	28	23.3	0	0.0	17	41.5
	Depression	0	0.0	35	29.2	0	0.0	14	34.1
	Other Diagnosis	0	0.0	27	22.5	0	0.0	10	24.4
	No Diagnosis	20	16.7	0	0.0	41	100.0	0	0.0
Age in years M (SD)		35.8 (13.4)		35.7 (13.2)		32.7 (10.4)		32.5 (10.3)
Total		120	100.0	120	100.0	41	100.0	41	100.0

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Table 12.3. Demographic Characteristics of Raters: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Observer Training and Validation Samples

Rater Demographic		Training				Validation
		General Population		ADHD		General Population		ADHD
		N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%
Gender	Female	68	56.7	79	65.8	28	68.3	24	58.5
	Male	52	43.3	40	33.3	13	31.7	17	41.5
	Other	0	0.0	1	0.8	0	0.0	0	0.0
U.S. Race/Ethnicity	Asian	1	0.8	1	0.8	1	2.4	0	0.0
	Black	4	3.3	2	1.7	3	7.3	0	0.0
	Hispanic	16	13.3	9	7.5	7	17.1	5	12.2
	White	71	59.2	91	75.8	22	53.7	28	68.3
	Other	2	1.7	1	0.8	0	0.0	1	2.4
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Not a visible minority	22	18.3	13	10.8	7	17.1	6	14.6
Canadian Race/Ethnicity	Visible minority	4	3.3	3	2.5	1	2.4	1	2.4
U.S. Region	Northeast	16	13.3	26	21.7	8	19.5	8	19.5
	Midwest	24	20.0	32	26.7	11	26.8	8	19.5
	South	38	31.7	30	25.0	8	19.5	10	24.4
	West	16	13.3	16	13.3	6	14.6	8	19.5
Canadian Region	Central	9	7.5	12	10.0	6	14.6	4	9.8
	East	3	2.5	3	2.5	1	2.4	1	2.4
	West	14	11.7	1	0.8	1	2.4	2	4.9
Education Level	No high school diploma	0	0.0	2	1.7	0	0.0	0	0.0
	High school diploma/GED	22	18.3	16	13.3	9	22.0	5	12.2
	Some college or associate degree	52	43.3	31	25.8	10	24.4	14	34.1
	Bachelor’s degree	33	27.5	39	32.5	19	46.3	14	34.1
	Graduate or professional degree	13	10.8	32	26.7	3	7.3	8	19.5
Relation to Individual Being Rated	Spouse	25	20.8	66	55.0	11	26.8	23	56.1
	Friend	46	38.3	15	12.5	14	34.1	8	19.5
	Other Family Member	48	40.0	35	29.2	16	39.0	9	22.0
	Other	1	0.8	4	3.3	0	0.0	1	2.4
Length of Relationship	1–5 months	2	1.7	0	0.0	1	2.4	1	2.4
	6–11 months	0	0.0	2	1.7	0	0.0	0	0.0
	1–3 years	11	9.2	14	11.7	1	2.4	5	12.2
	More than 3 years	107	89.2	104	86.7	39	95.1	35	85.4
How well does the rater know the individual being rated?	Moderately well	13	10.8	5	4.2	4	9.8	3	7.3
How well does the rater know the individual being rated?	Very well	107	89.2	115	95.8	37	90.2	38	92.7
How often does the rater interact with the individual being rated?	Monthly	15	12.5	2	1.7	3	7.3	1	2.4
	Weekly	44	36.7	20	16.7	12	29.3	5	12.2
	Daily	61	50.8	98	81.7	26	63.4	35	85.4
Age in years M (SD)		39.2 (15.5)		37.9 (14.2)		39.5 (13.4)		34.5 (11.7)
Total		120	100.0	120	100.0	41	100.0	41	100.0

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Table 12.4. Candidate Items: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Self-Report

Originating Section	Item Stem	10-item Solution	12-item Solution
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty completing tasks	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Needs reminders	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Concentrates only on interesting things	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Loses things	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Overfocused or distracted	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Distracted easily	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty paying attention	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty staying focused	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Requires deadlines		X
Hyperactivity	Talks too much	X	X
Hyperactivity	Fidgets	X	X
Impulsivity	Interrupts others		X

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Table 12.5. Candidate Items: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Observer

Originating Section	Item Stem	10-item Solution	12-item Solution
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Overfocused or distracted	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Distracted easily	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty paying attention	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty staying focused	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Difficulty prioritizing	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Procrastinates	X	X
Inattention/Executive Dysfunction	Needs reminders		X
Hyperactivity	Talks when they should be quiet		X
Impulsivity	Impulsive	X	X
Negative Self-Concept	Lacks confidence	X	X
Negative Self-Concept	Self-critical	X	X
Impairment & Functional Outcome Item	Finds things harder than other people	X	X

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Table 12.6. Classification Accuracy: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Training Sample

Form	Items Tested	Overall Accuracy	Sensitivity (%)	Specificity (%)	Positive Predictive Value (%)	Negative Predictive Value (%)	Kappa
Self-Report	All items	99.1	99.4	98.9	98.9	99.4	.98
	12-item	96.3	96.6	96.0	96.0	96.6	.93
	10-item	95.2	96.6	93.8	93.9	96.5	.90
Observer	All items	98.8	97.5	100.0	100.0	97.6	.98
	12-item	93.3	92.5	94.2	94.1	92.6	.87
	10-item	92.9	92.5	93.3	93.3	92.6	.86

Note. N = 352 for Self-Report; N = 240 for Observer.

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Table 12.7. Classification Accuracy: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Validation Sample

Form	Item Subset	Overall Accuracy	Sensitivity (%)	Specificity (%)	Positive Predictive Value (%)	Negative Predictive Value (%)	Kappa
Self-Report	12-item	91.0	92.6	89.7	90.0	92.4	.82
Self-Report	10-item	90.0	91.2	89.7	89.9	91.0	.81
Observer	12-item	88.0	90.2	85.4	86.0	89.7	.76
Observer	10-item	88.0	90.2	85.4	86.0	89.7	.76

Note. N = 136 for Self-Report; N = 82 for Observer.

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Table 12.8. Internal Consistency and Standard Error: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Normative Samples

Form	Sample	Age Group	Combined Gender				Male				Female
Form	Sample	Age Group	N	α	ω	SEM	N	α	ω	SEM	N	α	ω	SEM
Self-Report	Normative Sample	18–24	110	.89	.90	3.23	55	.89	.89	3.31	55	.89	.89	3.29
		25–29	110	.90	.90	3.14	55	.87	.88	3.52	55	.91	.92	2.89
		30–39	220	.91	.91	3.03	110	.90	.90	3.14	110	.90	.91	3.06
		40–49	220	.91	.91	2.96	110	.90	.90	3.13	110	.92	.92	2.83
		50–59	220	.90	.90	3.16	110	.88	.89	3.39	110	.91	.91	2.99
		60–69	220	.90	.90	3.18	110	.86	.87	3.62	110	.91	.92	2.87
		70+	220	.86	.86	3.72	94	.86	.87	3.64	126	.84	.85	3.94
	ADHD Reference Sample	18+	255	.82	.83	4.12	129	.83	.84	4.00	124	.73	.74	5.10
Observer	Normative Sample	18–24	110	.89	.89	3.26	55	.90	.90	3.16	55	.89	.89	3.26
		25–29	110	.92	.93	2.72	55	.81	.83	4.14	55	.92	.93	2.72
		30–39	220	.92	.92	2.74	110	.92	.92	2.84	110	.92	.92	2.74
		40–49	220	.91	.91	2.99	110	.90	.90	3.10	110	.91	.91	2.99
		50–59	220	.90	.90	3.18	110	.90	.90	3.13	110	.90	.90	3.18
		60–69	220	.89	.89	3.27	110	.88	.88	3.39	110	.89	.89	3.27
		70+	220	.88	.88	3.40	94	.88	.89	3.38	126	.88	.88	3.40
	ADHD Reference Sample	18+	170	.85	.86	3.78	87	.88	.88	3.42	81	.80	.82	4.24

Note. α = alpha, ω = omega, SEM = standard error of measurement. CAARS 2–ADHD Index consists of 12 items for both rater forms.

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Table 12.9. Test-Retest Reliability: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	r	Time 1			Time 2
Form	r	M	Mdn	SD	M	Mdn	SD
Self-Report	.84	7.7	7	5.5	7.6	7	6.1
Observer	.86	7.5	6	6.8	6.9	5	6.3

Note. N = 88 for Self-Report and N = 61 for Observer. All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate=.40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80.

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Table 12.10. Percentage of Change in Probability Score Range: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	Administration	Percentage of Sample Within Each Score Range					Cliff’s d
Form	Administration	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Self-Report	Time 1	87.5	5.7	1.1	2.3	3.4	-.05
Self-Report	Time 2	83.0	5.7	3.4	5.7	2.3	-.05
Observer	Time 1	70.5	14.8	8.2	0.0	6.6	.04
Observer	Time 2	73.8	14.8	4.9	3.3	3.3	.04

Note. N = 88 for Self-Report and N = 61 for Observer. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that Time 1 scores were higher than at Time 2.

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Table 12.11. Inter-Rater Reliability Study 1 (Two Observers, Same Rater Type): CAARS 2–ADHD Index

ADHD Index	r	Rater 1			Rater 2
	r	M	Mdn	SD	M	Mdn	SD
	.65	17.6	19	6.8	18.9	19	6.9

Note. N = 29. All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80

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Table 12.12. Percentage of Change in Probability Score Range: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Inter-Rater Reliability Study 1

	Percentage of Sample Within Each Score Range					Cliff’s d
	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Rater 1	13.8	13.8	10.3	24.1	37.9	-.11
Rater 2	3.4	17.2	10.3	24.1	44.8	-.11

Note. N = 29. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that the proportion of Time 1 scores were higher overall than at Time 2.

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Table 12.13. Inter-Rater Reliability Study 2: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Dyads	r	Self-Report			Observer
Dyads	r	M	Mdn	SD	M	Mdn	SD
Self-Report/Observer	.54	21.7	23	7	19.2	20	7.7
Observer/Observer	.54	16.2	17	7.6	18.4	18	7.6

Note. N = 211. All correlations significant, p < .001. Guidelines for interpreting |r|: very weak < .20; weak = .20 to .39; moderate = .40 to .59; strong = .60 to .79; very strong ≥ .80.

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Table 12.14. Percentage of Change in Probability Score Range: CAARS 2–ADHD Index Study 2

Dyads	Rater	Percentage of Sample Within Each Score Range					Cliff’s d
Dyads	Rater	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Self-Report/Observer	Self-Report	8.5	6.6	3.3	11.4	70.1	-.17
Self-Report/Observer	Observer	11.8	9.5	9.5	16.6	52.6	-.17
Observer/Observer	Observer 1	17.0	19.1	8.5	25.5	29.8	-.19
Observer/Observer	Observer 2	14.9	6.4	8.5	23.4	46.8	-.19

Note. N = 211 for Self-Report/Observer and N = 47 for Observer/Observer. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that scores were higher for the first form listed in each pair than the second form listed.

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Table 12.15. Distribution of CAARS 2–ADHD Index Probability Scores

Probability Score		Self-Report		Observer
Range	Guideline	General Population (%)	ADHD Reference Sample (%)	General Population (%)	ADHD Reference Sample (%)
1% to 9%	Very Low	81.2	2.4	75.5	4.7
10% to 39%	Low	8.0	3.1	10.1	5.9
40% to 59%	Borderline	3.3	0.8	3.7	7.6
60% to 89%	High	2.7	8.7	5.2	18.2
90% to 99%	Very High	4.7	85.0	5.5	63.5

Note. Self-Report N = 1,793 for General Population and 255 for ADHD Reference Sample. Observer N = 1,837 for General Population and 170 for ADHD Reference Sample.

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Table 12.16. Classification Accuracy Statistics: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Rater	Overall Correct Classification Rate (%)	Sensitivity (%)	Specificity (%)	Positive Predictive Value (%)	Negative Predictive Value (%)	Kappa
Self-Report	93.1	93.7	92.5	92.6	93.6	.72
Observer	85.5	81.8	89.3	88.5	83.0	.71

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Table 12.17. Classification Accuracy Statistics Adjusted for Base Rates: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Rater	10% Base Rate		60% Base Rate		70% Base Rate		80% Base Rate
Rater	PPV (%)	NPV (%)	PPV (%)	NPV (%)	PPV (%)	NPV (%)	PPV (%)	NPV (%)
Self-Report	71.5	98.7	93.8	92.4	94.6	91.3	95.3	90.2
Observer	60.5	96.1	90.2	80.3	91.5	77.8	92.5	75.4

Note. PPV = Positive Predictive Value. NPV = Negative Predictive Value.

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Table 12.18. Group Differences by Gender: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	Gender	Percentage of Normative Samples in Probability Score Category					Cliff’s d
Form	Gender	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Self-Report	Male	81.2	6.5	4.1	1.5	6.7	-.04
Self-Report	Female	77.3	8.2	1.7	3.7	9.1	-.04
Observer	Male	72.5	11.0	3.8	5.9	6.8	.00
Observer	Female	72.5	9.9	5.4	5.9	6.3	.00

Note. For Self-Report, N = 463 males and N = 463 females. For Observer, N = 444 males and N = 444 females. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that scores were higher for males than females.

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Table 12.19. Group Differences by U.S. Race/Ethnicity: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	Comparison Group	Race/Ethnicity of Individual Being Rated	Percentage of Matched Samples in Probability Score Category					Cliff’s d
Form	Comparison Group	Race/Ethnicity of Individual Being Rated	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Self-Report	White vs. Black	White	71.0	9.4	4.3	3.6	11.6	-.11
	White vs. Black	Black	81.2	7.2	1.4	4.3	5.8	-.11
	White vs. Hispanic	White	73.1	7.5	2.2	5.4	11.8	-.10
	White vs. Hispanic	Hispanic	82.8	7.5	2.2	1.1	6.5	-.10
	White vs. Asian	White	71.2	11.5	3.8	5.8	7.7	-.14
	White vs. Asian	Asian	86.5	3.8	0.0	1.9	7.7	-.14
Observer	White vs. Black	White	73.7	10.5	3.9	5.3	6.6	.00
	White vs. Black	Black	74.3	8.6	4.6	5.3	7.2	.00
	White vs. Hispanic	White	80.6	7.8	2.9	1.9	6.8	.08
	White vs. Hispanic	Hispanic	71.8	11.7	4.9	5.8	5.8	.08
	White vs. Asian	White	80.0	5.7	5.7	5.7	2.9	.01
	White vs. Asian	Asian	80.0	5.7	0.0	11.4	2.9	.01

Note. For Self-Report matched samples, N = 138 per group for White vs. Black, N = 93 per group for White vs. Hispanic, and N = 52 per group for White vs. Asian. For Observer matched samples, N = 152 per group for White vs. Black, N = 103 per group for White vs. Hispanic, and N = 35 per group for White vs. Asian. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates higher score for the first listed race/ethnic group than the second group.

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Table 12.20. Group Differences by Country of Residence: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	Country of Residence	Percentage of Matched Samples in Probability Score Category					Cliff’s d
Form	Country of Residence	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High	Cliff’s d
Self-Report	Canada	80.2	14.0	1.2	1.2	3.5	.05
Self-Report	U.S.	76.7	7.0	2.3	3.5	10.5	.05
Observer	Canada	77.8	14.8	2.5	2.5	2.5	.05
Observer	U.S.	74.1	11.1	4.9	4.9	4.9	.05

Note. For Self-Report matched sample, N = 86 per group, and for Observer matched sample, N = 81 per group. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that scores were higher for individuals from the U.S. than individuals from Canada.

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Table 12.21a. Group Differences by Education Level: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	Education Level	Percentage of Normative Samples in Probability Score Category
Form	Education Level	Very Low	Low	Borderline	High	Very High
Self-Report	EL 1	74.8	10.2	4.7	3.9	6.3
	EL 2	80.2	9.8	1.6	2.9	5.6
	EL 3	76.6	7.0	1.8	2.9	11.7
	EL 4	75.8	8.5	2.8	3.2	9.6
	EL 5	78.5	3.4	4.7	3.4	10.1
Observer	EL 1	66.2	16.2	1.5	9.2	6.9
	EL 2	74.1	9.3	4.4	4.1	8.0
	EL 3	69.5	11.1	4.2	7.4	7.9
	EL 4	71.6	10.4	4.1	6.3	7.5
	EL 5	67.3	10.3	7.1	7.7	7.7

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Table 12.21b. Group Differences Effect Sizes by Education Level: CAARS 2–ADHD Index

Form	EL1 vs. EL2	EL1 vs. EL3	EL1 vs. EL4	EL1 vs. EL5	EL2 vs. EL3	EL2 vs. EL4	EL2 vs. EL5	EL3 vs. EL4	EL3 vs. EL5	EL4 vs. EL5
Self-Report	-.06	.00	.00	-.02	-.05	.05	.03	.00	-.02	.02
Observer	-.02	.00	.08	.01	.06	.02	.00	.00	.00	.00

Note. EL = Education level; EL 1 = No high school diploma (N = 127 for Self-Report and 130 for Observer); EL 2 = High school diploma/GED (N = 378 for Self-Report and 386 for Observer); EL 3 = Some college or associate degree (N = 385 for Self-Report and 380 for Observer); EL 4 = Bachelor’s degree (N = 281 for Self-Report and 268 for Observer); EL 5 = Graduate or professional degree (N = 149 for Self-Report and 156 for Observer). Values presented are Cliff’s d. Guidelines for interpreting Cliff’s |d|: negligible effect size < .15; small effect size = .15 to .32; medium effect size = .33 to .46; large effect size ≥ .47. A positive Cliff’s d value indicates that scores were higher for the group listed first in the heading than the group listed second.